The Book of Logic

The Book of Logic
Introduction

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          When we behold the manifold creations of this earth, and the portion that has been given each of them, we see that God has given man the greatest portion of all. For man has a tremendous role to refine and bring to fruition the entire world. We can go so far as to say that in relation to man's role, God's Creation itself was merely a sort of beginning in a potential state; but the actual fulfillment is completely given over to man. Our Sages of blessed memory have already awakened us to this truth in their saying, "All that was created in the six days of Creation needs improvement. Wheat must be ground into flour. Lupine must be made sweet," and so on (Bereshis Rabbah, Parashah 11:6). Further, we find that Turnus Rufus, the Roman, once asked Rabbi Akiva, "What is finer, the handiwork of the Almighty or that of human beings?" He answered him, "The works of flesh and blood are finer." Then, to prove his point, he brought him sheaves of grain and fine wheat cakes and said to the Roman philosopher, "Which of these is the finer?" (Midrash Tanchuma, Parashas Ishah Ki Sazria 6).

          In fact, it is apparent to everyone that although all things follow their natural laws when they are left in a state of nature; nevertheless they cannot reach perfection without man's exertion and work. When man intervenes, he helps their nature and guides their development in a proper direction, so that the result is certain to be more perfect and refined. This is an obvious principle. By way of example, the fruit of any tree left to its nature without cultivation will not equal in taste and beauty the fruit of a tree which is cultivated, even though the tree will yield some small fruit according to its particular kind. Also the soil which is not cultivated, neither manured nor ploughed, will not yield produce at all, or at best will provide only lean and imperfect produce. This is the general rule except for a few instances where the natural fertility is so great that there is hardly any need of work. In conclusion, the Creator, blessed be He, has left room for us to distinguish ourselves as much as we are able by perfecting through our labor that which has been given us by nature.

          Furthermore, the uncultivated tree and the uncultivated soil provide a metaphor which applies to the intellect of man itself. Even with the ability to reason which is inherent in it by nature, the uncultivated intellect will be like the tree which is not cared for and like the soil which is neglected. For, even though the mind does not stop producing many thoughts, like the tree that does not stop giving the fruit which is particular to it, the untrained intellect will still not equal the mind that is cultivated, just like the fruit of a wild tree is not equal to cultivated fruit. Thus the intellect needs training and study in every element of reality, that is, in all those concepts which are its occupation, for without this the intellect will not fulfill its potential. Also it is necessary to study the process of understanding itself so that the mind can grasp ideas in a way that is complete and straight, and not lacking or confused.

          Consequently, to this end, the Rabbis before us have labored to arrange the categories of the intellect and to explain its rules correctly, with special consideration for whatever accidents can befall the intellect, both those which lead to lucidity and those which lead to foolishness — what helps the mind to form a true picture and what misleads us into false understanding. In this way we may know what there is to guard against in our thinking so that the intellect will not err, and also what is helpful to aid the mind to grasp the truth. The whole of this study is what is called the art of logic.

          Thus, when I saw the great need which, in truth, there is for this subject, I chose to arrange this study in a concise form including as much as seemed necessary for the completeness of the matter. For without the art of logic, it is impossible to enter into the inner chambers of wisdom and to enjoy her subtleties. Most of this work I have compiled from books which preceded me in other languages, and I have brought it into our language for the benefit of our people. Certain things I have added, subtracted, and changed from what I found before me when it seemed to me more proper. Therefore, gentle reader, stop at each section to consider it well, take heed to increase your understanding, and this knowledge of logic will give pleasure to your spirit.

Chapter One

          The art of logic in its entirety. Its definition and the need for it. The distinction between sensible and intelligible realities. Abstract and speculative realities. The division of reality into concept and fantasy.

          1 It is apparent to all that the entire labor of the intellect and its striving is to perceive things according to their true natures. However, the intellect may err and thus arrive at false conclusions. Therefore, a special study is needed to recognize and guard against the pitfalls into which it is possible to stumble so that our perceptions should be true. This study in its entirety is called the art of logic.

          2 The most basic function of the mind in its quest for the knowledge of things is the process of differentiation, to the point of recognizing each thing by itself distinct and separate from everything else. But, inasmuch as all elements of reality have within them aspects similar to one another and aspects which are different, it follows that the intellect will not reach the goal of its work unless it is trained in two activities, namely, comparison and differentiation.

          3 Mistakes can occur in either one of these two activities when one compares what is not similar or differentiates between things which are not in reality different. Hence, in both activities, study and exercise and systematic rules are necessary to set our reason on the straight path and not stray from it until the desired goal has been achieved.

          4 All the elements of reality are divided into two parts: one is the sensible or perceivable; the other is the intelligible. Perceptive reality is perceived with one of our senses. Intelligible reality is what the mind sees by its faculty of imagination. However, things which are imagined or thought do not exist per se in reality outside the mind. Intelligible reality is also divided into two categories: one is the abstract; the other is the speculative.

          An example of the perceptive is "the stone" or "the tree," things which are seen by the senses. Examples of the intelligible would be things like wisdom, memory, or strength, things which we understand and perceive in our mind, but our senses do not perceive them in the external reality.

          5 Abstract reality is what cannot be conceived by the senses except in conjunction with something else but it is abstracted by the intellect and isolated by itself. Speculative reality is something which cannot be conceived from the senses at all, either by itself or in conjunction with something else. Only the mind visualizes it. Speculative reality is also divided into two parts: the first is concept; the second is fantasy.

          An example of the abstract is color. White, black, or any other color is never seen by the senses as an independent entity; it only exists as an attribute of something. The mind, however, pictures whiteness as a separate entity superimposed on the body in which it is found. Thus we say that the mind abstracts whiteness from the body in which it is a quality and forms what we call an abstract concept. However, the speculative is not related to the senses in this way, as we will see in the next paragraph.

          6 The first category of the speculative is concept. A Concept is something whose existence cannot be established through the senses. Nevertheless, it is proper to say that it exists according to its level of abstraction between speculative and perceptive reality. Accordingly, our perceptions of reality tend to be ordered around concepts.

          The second category is Fantasy, which neither exists nor can it be said to exists, and perception can in no way be ordered around it.

          In other words, a concept is an evaluation of a reality which we do not see, but it is, nevertheless, drawn from the tangible world.

          For example, we observe that human beings exist and that they are alive; we also see animals, and they too are alive, and so also are birds. We conclude that there is a certain species of creature called the species of Living things. Now this species is not a real entity apart from these particulars which we have mentioned. The intellect, however, imagines that it does exist, as if there existed one such general species divided into particular subspecies. In fact, according to the logical scheme, the general is prior to the particular. This may be compared to a tree and its branches. Thus, our perceptive reality follows in the scheme of things after the speculative, as if the speculative concept were the trunk of a tree and the perceptive reality the branches from it. The situation is entirely different in the case of fantasy. It is altogether speculative, and there is nothing in the perceptive reality upon which we can base the existence of this fantasy.